Relativity and the lead-acid battery

Phys Rev Lett. 2011 Jan 7;106(1):018301. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.018301. Epub 2011 Jan 5.

Abstract

The energies of the solid reactants in the lead-acid battery are calculated ab initio using two different basis sets at nonrelativistic, scalar-relativistic, and fully relativistic levels, and using several exchange-correlation potentials. The average calculated standard voltage is 2.13 V, compared with the experimental value of 2.11 V. All calculations agree in that 1.7-1.8 V of this standard voltage arise from relativistic effects, mainly from PbO2 but also from PbSO4.