The domestic buffalo occupies an important niche in many ecologically disadvantaged agricultural systems, providing milk, meat and draught power. Although buffalo can adapt to harsh environments and live on low quality forage, their reproductive efficiency is often compromised by such conditions. Climatic stress depresses ovarian cyclicity, oestrous expression and conception rates. Poor nutrition, usually related to seasonal fluctuations in availability and quality of feed, delays puberty and increases the duration of postpartum anoestrus. Management factors such as the system of grazing (free, tethered or none) and sucking by calves (restricted or ad libitum) also modulate reproductive functions. Finally, the skills and capabilities of farmers as well as the quality of support services such as artificial insemination and disease control also influence fertility. The relative importance of these factors vary greatly depending on ecological conditions and production systems. Improvement of reproductive efficiency therefore requires the identification of specific limiting factors under a given situation and the development and field testing of strategies for improvements and interventions that are sustainable with available local resources. The application of modern reproductive technologies in buffaloes requires an appreciation of their biology and reproductive physiology as well as the potentials and limitations under each specific production system.