The formation and release of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) is a phenomenon observed in many bacteria, including Legionella pneumophila. During infection, this human pathogen primarily invades alveolar macrophages and replicates within a unique membrane-bound compartment termed Legionella-containing vacuole. In the current study, we analysed the membrane architecture of L. pneumophila OMVs by small-angle X-ray scattering and biophysically characterized OMV membranes. We investigated the interaction of L. pneumophila OMVs with model membranes by Förster resonance energy transfer and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. These experiments demonstrated the incorporation of OMV membrane material into liposomes composed of different eukaryotic phospholipids, revealing an endogenous property of OMVs to fuse with eukaryotic membranes. Cellular co-incubation experiments showed a dose- and time-dependent binding of fluorophore-labelled OMVs to macrophages. Trypan blue quenching experiments disclosed a rapid internalization of OMVs into macrophages at 37 and 4 °C. Purified OMVs induced tumour necrosis factor-α production in human macrophages at concentrations starting at 300 ng ml(-1). Experiments on HEK293-TLR2 and TLR4/MD-2 cell lines demonstrated a dominance of TLR2-dependent signalling pathways. In summary, we demonstrate binding, internalization and biological activity of L. pneumophila OMVs on human macrophages. Our data support OMV membrane fusion as a mechanism for the remote delivery of virulence factors to host cells.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.