The mechanism(s) by which long-term changes are induced and maintained in the nervous system are poorly understood. Kindling is an example of a permanent change in brain function that results from repeated elicitation of seizures. Recently, a class of genes called "immediate-early genes" that were previously thought to be only involved in cell division, differentiation and perhaps neoplasia have been shown to be rapidly and transiently induced in adult neurons following afterdischarges, ECS and chemically-evoked seizures. The products of these genes (e.g., FOS, JUN) are DNA-binding proteins and it is thought that they alter, perhaps in a coordinate fashion, the transcription of "late-effector genes." These late genes may code for enzymes, neuropeptides, receptors, ion channels, structural proteins, growth factors, etc. that may cause permanent biochemical and/or morphological changes in the brain that give rise to the kindled state. Thus, these early genes may act as molecular switches turning on a plasticity (kindling) program in neurons in a fashion similar to their induction of developmental programs in dividing cells.