Extracellular Vesicles in Angiogenesis

Abstract

During the past decade, extracellular vesicles (EVs), which include apoptotic bodies, microvesicles, and exosomes, have emerged as important players in cell-to-cell communication in normal physiology and pathological conditions. EVs encapsulate and convey various bioactive molecules that are further transmitted to neighboring or more distant cells, where they induce various signaling cascades. The message delivered to the target cells is dependent on EV composition, which, in turn, is determined by the cell of origin and the surrounding microenvironment during EV biogenesis. Among their multifaceted role in the modulation of biological responses, the involvement of EVs in vascular development, growth, and maturation has been widely documented and their potential therapeutic application in regenerative medicine or angiogenesis-related diseases is drawing increasing interest. EVs derived from various cell types have the potential to deliver complex information to endothelial cells and to induce either pro- or antiangiogenic signaling. As dynamic systems, in response to changes in the microenvironment, EVs adapt their cargo composition to fine-tune the process of blood vessel formation. This article reviews the current knowledge on the role of microvesicles and exosomes from various cellular origins in angiogenesis, with a particular emphasis on the underlying mechanisms, and discusses the main challenges and prerequisites for their therapeutic applications.

Keywords: cell-derived microparticles; endothelial cells; exosomes; extracellular vesicles; regenerative medicine.

Figure 1.

Mechanisms involved in the modulation of Angiogenesis by endothelial cell (EC)–derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). EC release EVs rich in micro-RNA such as miR-214 and miR-126, that are transferred to recipient EC and induce proangiogenic signaling. EVs contain functional matrix metalloproteinases that facilitate angiogenesis through the degradation of components of the extracellular matrix. Dll4 is transferred to EC by the EVs and induces Notch receptor internalization and tip cell formation. EVs bear, at their surface, a tissue factor that interacts with β1 integrin and induces Rac1-ERK1/2-ETS1 signaling, leading to the increased secretion of CCL2. EVs transport the complex uPA/uPAR, which stimulates angiogenesis through plasmin generation. The phosphatidylserine present on the surface of the EVs interacts with CD36 and induces Fyn kinase signaling, which leads to increased oxidative stress and the inhibition of angiogenesis. ATM indicates ataxia telangiectasia mutated; CCl2, chemokine c-c motif ligand 2; Dll4, Delta-like 4; ECM, extracellular matrix; ERK1/2, extracellular signal-related kinase 1 and 2; ETS1, avian erythroblastosis virus E26 homolog-1; IL-3R, interleukin-3 receptor; MMPs, matrix metalloproteinases; NotchR, Notch receptor; PS, phosphatidylserine; Rac1, Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TF, tissue factor; TIMPS, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases; uPA, urokinase plasminogen activator; and uPAR, urokinase plasminogen activator receptor.

Figure 2.

Mechanisms involved in the modulation of Angiogenesis by MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). In response to hypoxia, mesenchymal stem/stromal cells release EVs containing active pSTAT3 and nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway–associated proteins, which are transferred to recipient endothelial cell (EC) and promote the transcription of proangiogenic proteins. EVs contain and transfer several growth factors to EC (PDGF, FGF, EGF, VEGF, SCF, and c-kit). Wnt is present in the EVs and through interaction with its receptor, promotes the transcription of several molecules involved in angiogenesis. EVs stimulate vessel formation through the transfer of various micro-RNA. Among them, miR-31 acts by suppressing the factor inhibiting HIF-1α, and miR-125 promotes tip cell specification by suppressing Delta-like 4 (Dll4). ? indicates that the exact mechanisms of their transfer and the underlying signaling pathways are not completely described; EGF, epidermal growth factor; FGF, fibroblast growth factor; FIH, factor inhibiting HIF-1α; HIF, hypoxia inducible factor; PCNA, proliferating cell nuclear antigen; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; SCF, stem cell factor; and VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.

Figure 3.

Mechanisms involved in the modulation of Angiogenesis by platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). Platelet-derived EVs contain various growth factors and chemokines that induce proangiogenic signaling in endothelial cell (EC). Spingosine-1-phosphate (S1P1), present on the EV surface, induces PI3K activation and, together with VEGF and bFGF, promotes angiogenesis. The EVs released by platelets stimulate the proangiogenic potential of circulating angiogenic cells by increasing their expression of both membrane molecules and soluble factors. Platelet-derived EVs can inhibit angiogenesis by transferring the p22phox and gp91 subunits of NADPH oxidase and increasing the oxidative stress in EC. ? indicates that the exact content of the EVs is not reported; bFGF, basic fibroblast growth factor; EGF, epidermal growth factor; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; RANTES, regulated on activation, normal T-cell–expressed and secreted; ROS, reactive oxygen species; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; and VEGFR, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor.