After ischaemic stroke, brain damage can be curtailed by rescuing the 'ischaemic penumbra' - that is, the severely hypoperfused, at-risk but not yet infarcted tissue. Current evidence-based treatments involve restoration of blood flow so as to salvage the penumbra before it evolves into irreversibly damaged tissue, termed the 'core'. Intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) can salvage the penumbra if given within 4.5 h after stroke onset; however, the early recanalization rate is only ~30%. Direct removal of the occluding clot by mechanical thrombectomy considerably improves outcomes over IVT alone, but despite early recanalization in > 80% of cases, ~50% of patients who receive this treatment do not enjoy functional independence, usually because the core is already too large at the time of recanalization. Novel therapies aiming to 'freeze' the penumbra - that is, prevent core growth until recanalization is complete - hold potential as adjuncts to mechanical thrombectomy. This Review focuses on nonpharmacological approaches that aim to restore the physiological balance between oxygen delivery to and oxygen demand of the penumbra. Particular emphasis is placed on normobaric oxygen therapy, hypothermia and sensory stimulation. Preclinical evidence and early pilot clinical trials are critically reviewed, and future directions, including clinical translation and trial design issues, are discussed.