Short-term occupations at high elevation during the Middle Paleolithic at Kalavan 2 (Republic of Armenia)

Abstract

The Armenian highlands encompasses rugged and environmentally diverse landscapes and is characterized by a mosaic of distinct ecological niches and large temperature gradients. Strong seasonal fluctuations in resource availability along topographic gradients likely prompted Pleistocene hominin groups to adapt by adjusting their mobility strategies. However, the role that elevated landscapes played in hunter-gatherer settlement systems during the Late Pleistocene (Middle Palaeolithic [MP]) remains poorly understood. At 1640 m above sea level, the MP site of Kalavan 2 (Armenia) is ideally positioned for testing hypotheses involving elevation-dependent seasonal mobility and subsistence strategies. Renewed excavations at Kalavan 2 exposed three main occupation horizons and ten additional low densities lithic and faunal assemblages. The results provide a new chronological, stratigraphical, and paleoenvironmental framework for hominin behaviors between ca. 60 to 45 ka. The evidence presented suggests that the stratified occupations at Kalavan 2 locale were repeated ephemerally most likely related to hunting in a high-elevation within the mountainous steppe landscape.

Fig 1. Location map of Kalavan 2 within southern Caucasus and north-eastern Armenian highlands showing main Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic sites.

Squares = open-air sites, triangles = cave sites.

Fig 2. Geological map of Kalavan area showing the larger watershed of the Barepat and in blue line the Dani watershed.

Fig 3. Plateau topography and location of trenches at Kalavan 2.

Fig 4

A: Section drawing of the Kalavan 2, Trench 1 north section including sample locations; B: Section drawing of the Kalavan 2, Trench 1 south section including sample locations.

Fig 5. Kalavan 2, Trench 2 east and south sections with sample locations.

Fig 6. Kalavan 2, Trench 3 south section with sample locations.

Fig 7. Kalavan 2, Trench 4 north section with sample locations.

Fig 8. Obsidian lithic artifacts.

1, 4–5. Shaping flakes that removed the tips of convergent retouched points; 2–3. Shaping flakes; 6–7. Retouched points. (Illustration: P. Glauberman).

Fig 9

1. Non-obsidian lithic artifacts: blade made on welded tuff; 2. Cortical flake on welded tuff; 3. Levallois point made on basalt; 4. Core on split pebble made on metamorphic material. (Illustration: P. Glauberman).

Fig 10

Fragment of a retouched blade (upper left) and end-scaper (upper right) with striations and polish associated with hard animal material. A retouched point (bottom left, Fig 8:6) and a shaping flake of a retouched point (bottom right, Fig 8:1) showing striations and polish diagnostic of woodworking activities.

Fig 11

Limestone pitted anvil showing evidence of a) impact marks and b) surface crushing. Bottom: c) Limestone slab with abraded surface and percussion impact feature; d) Limestone pitted anvil with several impact marks and multidirectional flake scars resulting from percussive actions (arrows indicate the orientation of the flakes removal); e) The archeological context of the pitted anvils (red circle indicating pitted anvil; yellow circles indicating bone fragments).

Fig 12. Locations of obsidian sources relative to Kalavan 2 (SRTM3 digital elevation data).

Presence or absence of the obsidians at Kalavan 2 is represented by each source’s circular symbol. The empty circles correspond to obsidian sources that are not currently reflected in the Kalavan 2 assemblage.

Fig 13. Obsidian sources and the corresponding source areas identified at Kalavan 2 by trench.

Fig 14. Obsidian source areas identified in all trenches by lithic class.

Fig 15. Kalavan 2 cervid (red deer sized) metacarpus with multiple cut marks (Id: N50-44).

Fig 16. Kalavan 2: Large bovid femur diaphysis with impact notch (Id: A77-1).

Fig 17

Binary plots of artifact density and retouch frequency for sedimentary units at Barozh 12 (open circles) and Kalavan 2 (filled circles), with obsidian artifacts (A) and non-obsidian artifacts at Kalavan 2 (B). Data exclude artifacts < 2 cm in maximal dimensions to avoid differences among sedimentary units in assemblage preservation and winnowing of small artifacts due to post-depositional processes.