The orbitofrontal cortex in temporal cognition

Abstract

One of the most important factors in decision-making is estimating the value of available options. Subregions of the prefrontal cortex, including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), have been deemed essential for this process. Value computations require a complex integration across numerous dimensions, including, reward magnitude, effort, internal state, and time. The importance of the temporal dimension is well illustrated by temporal discounting tasks, in which subjects select between smaller-sooner versus larger-later rewards. The specific role of OFC in telling time and integrating temporal information into decision-making remains unclear. Based on the current literature, in this review we reevaluate current theories of OFC function, accounting for the influence of time. Incorporating temporal information into value estimation and decision-making requires distinct, yet interrelated, forms of temporal information including the ability to tell time, represent time, create temporal expectations, and the ability to use this information for optimal decision-making in a wide range of tasks, including temporal discounting and wagering. We use the term "temporal cognition" to refer to the integrated use of these different aspects of temporal information. We suggest that the OFC may be a critical site for the integration of reward magnitude and delay, and thus important for temporal cognition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Figure 1.. Examples of timing and temporal cognition tasks.

A. In an explicit timing task, a mouse learns the reward delay associated with each cue and produces anticipatory licking during the appropriate cue-specific interval. B. In an implicit timing task each trial may be initiated by a cue (green or red), and humans are asked to respond to a white square. In valid trials each cue is associated with a short or long delay, but in a small number of invalid trials the relationship is reversed. Reaction times are faster in the valid trials even though the task simply requires responding to the target. C. Temporal discounting tasks require animals to select between a smaller-sooner reward versus a larger-later reward. Whereas the delay to the small reward remains at 10 s, typically the delays to the larger reward increase in trial blocks from 10s, 20s, 40s, up to 60s. D. Temporal wagering tasks require animals to wait for variable delay reward following discrimination (i.e., categorization) of an uncertain stimulus. Longer wait times are generally associated with certainty, a proxy for confidence. Importantly, animals can abort the trial at any time during the delay, an outcome generally associated with uncertainty. E. Temporal distribution tasks require animals to discriminate between options with different distributions of reward delays. In this example, animals initiate a trial (central white square), then choose between stimuli associated with the same mean wait time (μ=10s) but different standard deviation of delays (σ either 1s or 4s).