Exploring the Relationship Between Mental Well-Being, Exercise Routines, and the Intake of Image and Performance Enhancing Drugs During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: A Comparison Across Sport Disciplines

doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689058

. 2021 Jul 6:12:689058.

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689058. eCollection 2021.

Exploring the Relationship Between Mental Well-Being, Exercise Routines, and the Intake of Image and Performance Enhancing Drugs During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: A Comparison Across Sport Disciplines

Mami Shibata¹, Julius Burkauskas², Artemisa R Dores^{3

4}, Kei Kobayashi¹, Sayaka Yoshimura^{5

6}, Pierluigi Simonato⁷, Ilaria De Luca⁷, Dorotea Cicconcelli⁷, Valentina Giorgetti⁷, Irene P Carvalho⁸, Fernando Barbosa³, Cristina Monteiro⁹, Toshiya Murai¹, Maria A Gómez-Martínez¹⁰, Zsolt Demetrovics^{11

12}, Krisztina Edina Ábel¹¹, Attila Szabo^{11

13}, Alejandra Rebeca Melero Ventola¹⁴, Eva Maria Arroyo-Anlló¹⁵, Ricardo M Santos-Labrador¹⁶, Inga Griskova-Bulanova¹⁷, Aiste Pranckeviciene², Giuseppe Bersani¹⁸, Hironobu Fujiwara^{1

19}, Ornella Corazza^{6

18}

Affiliations

¹ Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan.
² Laboratory of Behavioral Medicine, Neuroscience Institute, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Palanga, Lithuania.
³ Laboratory of Neuropsychophysiology, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁴ School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁵ Department of Neurodevelopmental Psychiatry, Habilitation and Rehabilitation, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
⁶ Organization for Promotion of Neurodevelopmental Disorder Research, Kyoto, Japan.
⁷ Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom.
⁸ Clinical Neurosciences and Mental Health Department and CINTESIS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁹ Department of Psychometrics, Institute of Psychology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
¹⁰ Department of Psychology, Pontifical University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
¹¹ Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
¹² Centre of Excellence in Responsible Gaming, University of Gibraltar, Gibraltar, Gibraltar.
¹³ Institute of Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
¹⁴ Faculty of Psychology, Pontifical University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
¹⁵ Department of Psychobiology, Neuroscience Institute of Castilla-León, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
¹⁶ Escuela Universitaria de Magisterio Fray Luis de León, Valladolid, Spain.
¹⁷ Department of Neurobiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania.
¹⁸ Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
¹⁹ Artificial Intelligence Ethics and Society Team, RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Saitama, Japan.

PMID: 34295291
PMCID: PMC8290335
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689058

Exploring the Relationship Between Mental Well-Being, Exercise Routines, and the Intake of Image and Performance Enhancing Drugs During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: A Comparison Across Sport Disciplines

Mami Shibata et al. Front Psychol. 2021.

. 2021 Jul 6:12:689058.

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689058. eCollection 2021.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan.
² Laboratory of Behavioral Medicine, Neuroscience Institute, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Palanga, Lithuania.
³ Laboratory of Neuropsychophysiology, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁴ School of Health, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁵ Department of Neurodevelopmental Psychiatry, Habilitation and Rehabilitation, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
⁶ Organization for Promotion of Neurodevelopmental Disorder Research, Kyoto, Japan.
⁷ Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom.
⁸ Clinical Neurosciences and Mental Health Department and CINTESIS, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
⁹ Department of Psychometrics, Institute of Psychology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
¹⁰ Department of Psychology, Pontifical University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
¹¹ Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
¹² Centre of Excellence in Responsible Gaming, University of Gibraltar, Gibraltar, Gibraltar.
¹³ Institute of Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
¹⁴ Faculty of Psychology, Pontifical University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
¹⁵ Department of Psychobiology, Neuroscience Institute of Castilla-León, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain.
¹⁶ Escuela Universitaria de Magisterio Fray Luis de León, Valladolid, Spain.
¹⁷ Department of Neurobiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania.
¹⁸ Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
¹⁹ Artificial Intelligence Ethics and Society Team, RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Saitama, Japan.

PMID: 34295291
PMCID: PMC8290335
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689058

Abstract

Introduction: Physical distancing under the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic had a significant impact on lifestyles, including exercise routines. In this study, we examined the relationship between mental health and addictive behaviors, such as excessive exercise and the use of image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) across 12 sport disciplines. Materials and methods: A large cross-sectional sample of the adult population (N = 2,295) was surveyed. The mean age was 33.09 (SD = 11.40). The number of male participants was 668 (30.0%). The use of IPEDs was assessed in conjunction with psychometric measures such as the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) and the Appearance Anxiety Inventory (AAI). The participants were grouped into activity group (AG) and non-activity group (NAG) according to the presence or absence of their exercise habits. The results were compared between these groups, as well as across sport disciplines, while taking into account the relationship between different psychological measures and IPEDs consumption. Results: The frequency of IPEDs use was higher among AG (34.6%) than NAG (14.6%), although AG participants reported less history of addictions (7.1%) than NAG (11.8%). The logistic regression analysis revealed that scores equal to or above cutoff points, in both the EAI and AAI, predicted the IPEDs use. Regarding the differences across the various sport disciplines, those who were involved in practicing Weight Lifting and Cross Fit were found to be more at risk of excessive exercising and more inclined to use a wide range of IPEDs. Conclusions: Although exercise could help to increase well-being and prevent addictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, our results show that those in the AG are particularly vulnerable to excessive IPEDs use. Sport disciplines associated with higher EAI and AAI scores have also shown a higher tendency to excessive IPEDs use. Furthermore, the factor of having above the cutoff scores in EAI or AAI in each sport could indicate larger IPEDs consumption regardless of the discipline. In light of the current findings, it is necessary to better define the "non-excessive" levels of exercise in various sport disciplines and an adequate intake of IPEDs to ensure the safety and well-being of people during a pandemic.

Keywords: COVID-19; IPEDS; enhancement; excessive exercise; supplement.

Copyright © 2021 Shibata, Burkauskas, Dores, Kobayashi, Yoshimura, Simonato, De Luca, Cicconcelli, Giorgetti, Carvalho, Barbosa, Monteiro, Murai, Gómez-Martínez, Demetrovics, Ábel, Szabo, Ventola, Arroyo-Anlló, Santos-Labrador, Griskova-Bulanova, Pranckeviciene, Bersani, Fujiwara and Corazza.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Figures

**Figure 1**
Schematic representation of the features of EAI and AAI on each exercise.

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[1] Ágoston C., Urbán R., Richman M., Demetrovics Z. (2018). Caffeine use disorder: an item-response theory analysis of proposed DSM-5 criteria. Addict. Behav. 81, 109–116. 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.012 - DOI - PubMed

[2] Ágoston C., Urbán R., Richman M., Demetrovics Z. (2018). Caffeine use disorder: an item-response theory analysis of proposed DSM-5 criteria. Addict. Behav. 81, 109–116. 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.012 - DOI - PubMed

[3] American Psychatric Association (2013). Caffeine use disorder. in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th ed, eds Jeste D. V., Lieberman J. A., Fassler D., Peele R. (Washington, DC: Am Psychiatric Association Pub; ). 10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 - DOI

[4] American Psychatric Association (2013). Caffeine use disorder. in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th ed, eds Jeste D. V., Lieberman J. A., Fassler D., Peele R. (Washington, DC: Am Psychiatric Association Pub; ). 10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 - DOI

[5] Banz B. C., Yip S. W., Yau Y. H. C., Potenza M. N. (2016). Behavioral addictions in addiction medicine. Prog. Brain Res. 223, 311–328. 10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.08.003 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

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[8] Barczak N., Eklund R. (2020). C. The moderating effect of self-compassion on relationships between performance and subsequent coping and motivation. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 18, 256–268. 10.1080/1612197X.2018.1511620 - DOI

[9] Basu S., Karmakar A., Bidhan V., Kumar H., Brar K., Pandit M., et al. . (2020). Impact of lockdown due to COVID-19 outbreak: lifestyle changes and public health concerns in India. Int. J. Indian Psychol. 8, 1385–1411. 10.25215/0802.159 - DOI

[10] Basu S., Karmakar A., Bidhan V., Kumar H., Brar K., Pandit M., et al. . (2020). Impact of lockdown due to COVID-19 outbreak: lifestyle changes and public health concerns in India. Int. J. Indian Psychol. 8, 1385–1411. 10.25215/0802.159 - DOI

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Exploring the Relationship Between Mental Well-Being, Exercise Routines, and the Intake of Image and Performance Enhancing Drugs During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: A Comparison Across Sport Disciplines

Affiliations

Exploring the Relationship Between Mental Well-Being, Exercise Routines, and the Intake of Image and Performance Enhancing Drugs During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: A Comparison Across Sport Disciplines

Authors

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Abstract

Conflict of interest statement

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