Soil moisture is a key parameter of the climate system as it relates to plant transpiration and photosynthesis and impacts land-atmosphere interactions. Recent developments have seen an increasing number of electromagnetic sensors available commercially (EM) for soil volumetric water content (θ). Their use is constantly expanding, and they are becoming increasingly used for agricultural, ecological, and geotechnical applications and climate research, providing decision support and high-resolution data for models and machine-learning algorithms. In this study, a soil moisture sensor network consisting of 10 Sense Cap capacitance-based sensors is evaluated. Analytical performance of the sensors was determined based on laboratory and field measurements with dielectric permittivity (ε) standards and soil media substrates. Sensor response normalisation to standards of known ε was found to reduce intersensor variability and provide robust estimates of θ in soil samples with known θ. Cross-comparison with a time-domain reflectometry (TDR) instrument carried out in two soil media demonstrates good agreement between the two probes throughout the tested range. The data communication performance of the network was evaluated in terms of packet drop rate at different ranges and sampling frequencies. It was noticed that the drop rate increased with distance from the gateway, while sampling frequency had no effect. Sources of errors associated with probe installation were identified and recommendations are provided for sensor deployment. The off-the-shelf all-in-one solution provided by Sense Cap is low cost, user friendly and suitable for implementation at temporal and spatial scales once the identified shortcomings are addressed. The evaluation presented aims to aid stakeholders and users involved in soil and land management practices including crop production, soil conservation, carbon sequestration and pollutants transport.
Keywords: LoRaWAN; TDR; dielectric permittivity; soil moisture.