S100 is a broad subfamily of low-molecular weight calcium-binding proteins (9-14 kDa) with structural similarity and functional discrepancy. It is required for inflammation and cellular homeostasis, and can work extracellularly, intracellularly, or both. S100 members participate in a variety of activities in a healthy cell, including calcium storage and transport (calcium homeostasis). S100 isoforms that have previously been shown to play important roles in the immune system as alarmins (DAMPs), antimicrobial peptides, pro-inflammation stimulators, chemo-attractants, and metal scavengers during an innate immune response. Currently, during the pandemic, it was found that several members of the S100 family are implicated in the pathophysiology of COVID-19. Further, S100 family protein members were proposed to be used as a prognostic marker for COVID-19 infection identification using a nasal swab. In the present review, we compiled the vast majority of recent studies that focused on the multifunctionality of S100 proteins in the complex immune system and its associated activities. Furthermore, we shed light on the numerous molecular approaches and signaling cascades regulated by S100 proteins during immune response. In addition, we discussed the involvement of S100 protein members in abnormal defense systems during the pathogenesis of COVID-19.
Keywords: COVID-19; alarmins; antimicrobial peptide; autoimmune disease; immune cells; inflammation; nutritional immunity.