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. 2022 Aug 17;10(8):479.
doi: 10.3390/toxics10080479.

Ecotoxicity of Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) and Polylactic Acid (PLA) Microplastics in Marine Zooplankton

Michela Di Giannantonio  1 , Chiara Gambardella  2 , Roberta Miroglio  2 , Elisa Costa  2 , Francesca Sbrana  3   4 , Marco Smerieri  5 , Giovanni Carraro  5 , Roberto Utzeri  6 , Marco Faimali  2 , Francesca Garaventa  1
Affiliations
Free PMC article

Ecotoxicity of Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF) and Polylactic Acid (PLA) Microplastics in Marine Zooplankton

Michela Di Giannantonio et al. Toxics. .
Free PMC article

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the ecotoxicity of polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) and polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics (MPs) in two marine zooplankton: the crustacean Artemia franciscana and the cnidarian Aurelia sp. (common jellyfish). To achieve this goal, (i) MP uptake, (ii) immobility, and (iii) behavior (swimming speed, pulsation mode) of crustacean larval stages and jellyfish ephyrae exposed to MPs concentrations (1, 10, 100 mg/L) were assessed for 24 h. Using traditional and novel techniques, i.e., epifluorescence microscopy and 3D holotomography (HT), PVDF and PLA MPs were found in the digestive systems of the crustaceans and in the gelatinous tissue of jellyfish. Immobility was not affected in either organism, while a significant behavioral alteration in terms of pulsation mode was found in jellyfish after exposure to both PVDF and PLA MPs. Moreover, PLA MPs exposure in jellyfish induced a toxic effect (EC50: 77.43 mg/L) on the behavioral response. This study provides new insights into PLA and PVDF toxicity with the potential for a large impact on the marine ecosystem, since jellyfish play a key role in the marine food chain. However, further investigations incorporating additional species belonging to other trophic levels are paramount to better understand and clarify the impact of such polymers at micro scale in the marine environment. These findings suggest that although PVDF and PLA have been recently proposed as innovative and, in the case of PLA, biodegradable polymers, their effects on marine biota should not be underestimated.

Keywords: behavior; cnidarians; crustacean; ecotoxicology; emerging contaminants; marine biota; novel detection method.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Representation of a Tomocube’s holotomography functioning.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Electrospinning apparatus, consisting of (a) high-voltage power supply, up to 50 kV, (b) programmable syringe pump for syringes up to 50 mL, (c) aluminum cage collector (80 mm × 170 mm) that can spin up to 1k rpm, (d) needle positioning system, (e) MDF cabinet.
Figure 3
Figure 3
(A) SEM images of PVDF and (B) PLA after grinding.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Epifluorescence of PVDF and PLA MPs stained with Nile red in the A. franciscana nauplii. Control refers to A. franciscana nauplii not exposed to MPs. After exposure to PVDF and PLA MPs, materials were localized in the gut. Bars equal 100 µm.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Epifluorescence of PVDF and PLA stained with Nile red in Aurelia sp. ephyrae jellyfish acquired together with holotomogram. Both materials (red color representing the fluorescence channel; refractive index 1.42 for PVDF and 1.4 for PLA) are localized inside the gelatinous body (index range 1.355–1.378) after 24 h exposure. Bars equal 30 μm.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Behavioral responses of A. franciscana nauplii (A,B) and Aurelia sp. ephyrae (C,D) exposed to PVDF and PLA MPs (0, 1, 10, 100 mg/L) for 24 h. Swimming speed (mm/s) of A. franciscana after exposure to PVDF (A) and PLA (B) MPs. Frequency of pulsation of Aurelia sp. ephyrae after exposure to PVDF (C) and PLA (D). * p < 0.01.
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