Pathophysiology of Red Blood Cell Trapping in Ischemic Acute Kidney Injury

Abstract

Red blood cell (RBC) trapping describes the accumulation of RBCs in the microvasculature of the kidney outer medulla that occurs following ischemic acute kidney injury (AKI). Despite its prominence in human kidneys following AKI, as well as evidence from experimental models demonstrating that the severity of RBC trapping is directly correlated with renal recovery, to date, RBC trapping has not been a primary focus in understanding the pathogenesis of ischemic kidney injury. New evidence from rodent models suggests that RBC trapping is responsible for much of the tubular injury occurring in the initial hours after kidney reperfusion from ischemia. This early injury appears to result from RBC cytotoxicity and closely reflects the injury profile observed in human kidneys, including sloughing of the medullary tubules and the formation of heme casts in the distal tubules. In this review, we discuss what is currently known about RBC trapping. We conclude that RBC trapping is likely avoidable. The primary causes of RBC trapping are thought to include rheologic alterations, blood coagulation, tubular cell swelling, and increased vascular permeability; however, new data indicate that a mismatch in blood flow between the cortex and medulla where medullary perfusion is maintained during cortical ischemia is also likely critical. The mechanism(s) by which RBC trapping contributes to renal functional decline require more investigation. We propose a renewed focus on the mechanisms mediating RBC trapping, and RBC trapping-associated injury is likely to provide important knowledge for improving AKI outcomes. © 2024 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 14:5325-5343, 2024.

Keywords: acute kidney injury; acute tubular necrosis; erythrocytes; ischemia-reperfusion; vascular congestion.