Objectives: The objectives of this study are to explore and evaluate the automation of anatomical landmark localization in cephalometric images using machine learning techniques, with a focus on feature extraction and combinations, contextual analysis, and model interpretability through Shapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) values.
Methods: We conducted extensive experimentation on a private dataset of 300 lateral cephalograms to thoroughly study the annotation results obtained using pixel feature descriptors including raw pixel, gradient magnitude, gradient direction, and histogram-oriented gradient (HOG) values. The study includes evaluation and comparison of these feature descriptions calculated at different contexts namely local, pyramid, and global. The feature descriptor obtained using individual combinations is used to discern between landmark and nonlandmark pixels using classification method. Additionally, this study addresses the opacity of LGBM ensemble tree models across landmarks, introducing SHAP values to enhance interpretability.
Results: The performance of feature combinations was assessed using metrics like mean radial error, standard deviation, success detection rate (SDR) (2 mm), and test time. Remarkably, among all the combinations explored, both the HOG and gradient direction operations demonstrated significant performance across all context combinations. At the contextual level, the global texture outperformed the others, although it came with the trade-off of increased test time. The HOG in the local context emerged as the top performer with an SDR of 75.84% compared to others.
Conclusions: The presented analysis enhances the understanding of the significance of different features and their combinations in the realm of landmark annotation but also paves the way for further exploration of landmark-specific feature combination methods, facilitated by explainability.
Keywords: HOG; gradient features; landmark annotation; machine learning; texture features.
© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the British Institute of Radiology and the International Association of Dentomaxillofacial Radiology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.