A longitudinal study of theory of mind across the lifespan

Hanna G Erceg; Ruby S Dhillon; Daniel G Derksen; Eric Y Mah; Daniel M Bernstein

doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1549378

A longitudinal study of theory of mind across the lifespan

Front Psychol. 2025 Jul 17:16:1549378. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1549378. eCollection 2025.

Authors

Hanna G Erceg^{1

2}, Ruby S Dhillon², Daniel G Derksen², Eric Y Mah³, Daniel M Bernstein^{1

2}

Affiliations

¹ Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada.
² Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
³ Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada.

Abstract

Introduction: Theory of Mind (ToM) is essential for social interactions. However, gaps remain in our knowledge of when ToM abilities develop and change, particularly from adolescence to older adulthood.

Methods: We used data from an ongoing longitudinal study to examine ToM abilities across three time points in participants aged 3 years and older. Testing waves occurred over multiple years. Cognitive ToM was assessed using the Sandbox task (N = 187; age range = 3-80 years), and affective ToM was assessed using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task (RMET; N = 121; age range = 6-80 years). Data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVAs to examine interactions between Age Group and Time Point.

Results: Children aged 6-9 years exhibited significantly lower ToM abilities compared to adults. However, beyond childhood, both cognitive and affective ToM remained relatively stable across the lifespan.

Discussion: Our study illuminates critical periods of ToM development. Moreover, our study highlights the importance of using measures that capture subtle changes across the lifespan.

Keywords: Sandbox task; cognitive and affective ToM; false-belief understanding; lifespan; longitudinal analysis; reading the mind in the eyes; social cognition; theory of mind.