Macromolecular crowding is a fundamental property of the intracellular environment that influences protein folding, enzymatic activity, and phase behavior. Disruptions to the homeostasis of macromolecular crowding can drive pathological processes, such as aberrant liquid-liquid phase separation and protein aggregation, which are central features of several neurodegenerative diseases. However, tools for quantifying crowding and aggregation remain limited. Here, we describe moxCRONOS, a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensor that enables the quantitative measurement of macromolecular crowding and protein condensation. moxCRONOS retains the optical properties of the original CRONOS sensor but offers enhanced stability in oxidative environments, such as within the endoplasmic reticulum or under sodium arsenite treatment, allowing for direct comparison of crowding levels across organelles regardless of redox conditions. Moreover, when fused to dipeptide repeat proteins associated with C9ORF72-linked neurodegeneration, moxCRONOS detects aggregation-prone states-especially in cells expressing glycine-alanine (GA) repeats. Using fluorescence-activated cell sorting, we achieved sensitive and quantitative detection of heterogeneous high-FRET cell populations containing GA aggregates. FRET signal intensity increased upon treatment with a molecular crowding agent or a proteasome inhibitor. These findings establish moxCRONOS as a versatile biosensor for investigating both physiological macromolecular crowding and pathological protein aggregation, with significant potential for disease modeling and therapeutic screening.
Keywords: Biosensor; FRET; LLPS; Macromolecular crowding; Protein aggregation.
© The Author(s) 2025. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Japanese Biochemical Society.