Immune response to co-administration of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) and contraceptive vaccines in badgers (Meles meles)

Kate L Palphramand; Paul Anderson; Fiona Bellamy; Colin Birch; Dipesh Davé; Doug Eckery; Matt Gomm; Rachel Jinks; Giovanna Massei; Rebecca Pinkham; Sabah Rahou; Hugh Simmons; Flavie Vial; Gareth A Williams; Graham C Smith

doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.128069

Immune response to co-administration of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) and contraceptive vaccines in badgers (Meles meles)

Vaccine. 2026 Jan 25:71:128069. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.128069. Epub 2025 Dec 9.

Authors

Kate L Palphramand¹, Paul Anderson², Fiona Bellamy³, Colin Birch⁴, Dipesh Davé⁵, Doug Eckery⁶, Matt Gomm⁷, Rachel Jinks⁸, Giovanna Massei⁹, Rebecca Pinkham¹⁰, Sabah Rahou¹¹, Hugh Simmons¹², Flavie Vial¹³, Gareth A Williams¹⁴, Graham C Smith¹⁵

Affiliations

¹ Animal and Plant Health Agency, York YO41 1LZ, UK. Electronic address: kate.palphramand@apha.gov.uk.
² Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK. Electronic address: Paul.Anderson@apha.gov.uk.
³ Animal and Plant Health Agency, York YO41 1LZ, UK. Electronic address: Fiona.Bellamy@apha.gov.uk.
⁴ Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK. Electronic address: Colin.Birch@apha.gov.uk.
⁵ Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK. Electronic address: Dipesh.Dave@apha.gov.uk.
⁶ USDA APHIS WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 LaPorte Avenue, Fort Collins, CO, USA. Electronic address: douglas.c.eckery@usda.gov.
⁷ Animal and Plant Health Agency, York YO41 1LZ, UK. Electronic address: Matthew.Gomm@apha.gov.uk.
⁸ Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK. Electronic address: Rachel.Jinks@apha.gov.uk.
⁹ Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, 290 Wentworth Way, Heslington, York YO10 5NG, UK. Electronic address: giovanna.massei@york.ac.uk.
¹⁰ Animal and Plant Health Agency, York YO41 1LZ, UK. Electronic address: Rebecca.Pinkham@apha.gov.uk.
¹¹ Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2 Marsham Street, London, SW1P 4DF, UK. Electronic address: sabah.rahou@defra.gov.uk.
¹² Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK. Electronic address: Hugh.Simmons@apha.gov.uk.
¹³ Animal and Plant Health Agency, York YO41 1LZ, UK.
¹⁴ Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK. Electronic address: Gareth.A.Williams@apha.gov.uk.
¹⁵ Animal and Plant Health Agency, York YO41 1LZ, UK. Electronic address: Graham.Smith@apha.gov.uk.

PMID: 41371097
DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2025.128069

Abstract

Controlling bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in livestock is often hindered by the presence of a wildlife reservoir, such as the Eurasian badger in the UK and Ireland. Vaccinating badgers against bTB can reduce the severity of Mycobacterium bovis infection and potential onwards transmission to cattle, badgers and other species; additional benefits may be achieved by combining this with fertility control to reduce population levels. To evaluate the effects of co-administering a bTB vaccine (BCG) and contraceptive vaccine (GonaCon), captive badgers were given either BCG only, GonaCon only or BCG + GonaCon (phase 1). The duration of immune response to BCG vaccination and booster vaccination was also evaluated in the BCG only group over a 24-month period (phase 2). The immune responses to purified protein derivatives PPDA and PPDB, used to measure the effects of BCG, did not differ significantly between the BCG only and BCG + GonaCon badgers but differed significantly between the BCG only and GonaCon only badgers. Anti-GnRH antibody titres, quantified to measure the effect of GonaCon, peaked at the first sampling point for most badgers in the GonaCon only and BCG + GonaCon groups. Throughout phase 1, lasting three months, badgers in both GonaCon treatment groups maintained high anti-GnRH antibody titres (1,128,000 or above) that are associated with infertility in this species, with no significant difference between the two GonaCon groups. The immune responses to BCG vaccination in the BCG only badgers (phase 2) were elevated at the first sampling point, approximately three weeks after initial and booster vaccination, generally declining thereafter. The results suggest that co-administering BCG and GonaCon did not affect the measured responses of each vaccine, and the cell-mediated responses were enhanced by booster vaccination. The protective effects afforded by both vaccines when given together, in terms of reduced disease burden or fecundity, should be determined by further studies.

Keywords: BCG vaccine; Bovine tuberculosis; Fertility control; GonaCon; Human-wildlife conflict; Immune response; Wildlife management.

MeSH terms

Animals
BCG Vaccine* / administration & dosage
BCG Vaccine* / immunology
Cattle
Female
Immunization, Secondary
Ireland
Mustelidae* / immunology
Mycobacterium bovis / immunology
Tuberculosis, Bovine* / prevention & control
Vaccination
Vaccines, Contraceptive* / administration & dosage
Vaccines, Contraceptive* / immunology

Substances

BCG Vaccine
Vaccines, Contraceptive