Developmental Diversity in the Effects of Control on Memory

Abstract

Although control over learning is known to enhance memory, its developmental effects have been inconsistently reported, possibly due to differences in the level and type of control examined. To clarify this, the present study tested how three forms of control-high consequential control allowing regulation of study order, frequency, and duration (Experiment 1), partial consequential control allowing regulation of order and frequency (Experiment 2), and perceived control in which participants determined the order without prior knowledge of the study content, unlike in Experiments 1 and 2 (Experiment 3)-influence memory in children and adolescents aged 6-14 (N = 393). Results showed that high consequential control enhanced both immediate and delayed memory, with effects emerging around age 7-8. Partial consequential control failed to yield reliable memory benefits, but showed a marginal trend of age-related improvement during the studied age range. In contrast, perceived control did not benefit immediate memory but enhanced delayed memory, with effects emerging around age 7-8. Cross-experiment comparisons further demonstrated that the degree of consequential control (Experiment 1 vs. Experiment 2) significantly shaped the developmental trajectory of memory benefits. Meanwhile, the type of control (Experiment 1 vs. Experiment 3) significantly affected whether enhancements appeared in immediate or delayed memory. These findings reveal the developmental diversity in how control influences memory and suggest that distinct mechanisms may underlie the effects of different forms of control across development.

Keywords: consequential control; developmental diversity; learning and memory; perceived control.