3D printing and prostheses: The current state-of-the-art and future directions

Catherine Stauffer; Nathan W Brantly; Dylan W Beam; Rohit Bose; Goeran Fiedler; Lee E Fisher

doi:10.1177/20556683261448197

3D printing and prostheses: The current state-of-the-art and future directions

J Rehabil Assist Technol Eng. 2026 May 4:13:20556683261448197. doi: 10.1177/20556683261448197. eCollection 2026 Jan-Dec.

Authors

Catherine Stauffer^{1

2}, Nathan W Brantly^{3

4}, Dylan W Beam^{2

3

5}, Rohit Bose^{2

6}, Goeran Fiedler^{5

7}, Lee E Fisher^{1

2

3

4}

Affiliations

¹ Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
² Rehabilitation and Neural Engineering Laboratory, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
³ Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
⁴ Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
⁵ The Accessible Prosthetics Initiative, Columbus, OH, USA.
⁶ Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
⁷ School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.

Abstract

Limb difference affects millions worldwide, with prevalence expected to rise due to increasing rates of diabetes and vascular disease. Despite the need for high-quality, functional prostheses, many individuals, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, lack access to affordable, customized prostheses. 3D printing offers a promising approach to address these gaps by enabling lower-cost, highly personalized prosthetic fabrication. This narrative review examines the current state of 3D printing in prosthetics, with a focus on upper limb prostheses, socket design, and terminal attachments. Although 3D printing has been used to produce functional prostheses, particularly in non-regulated settings, clinical adoption remains limited due to concerns regarding safety, durability, and a lack of high-quality evidence. This review highlights the advantages of 3D printing, including cost-effectiveness, customization, and accessibility, while also addressing key limitations such as material performance, regulatory challenges, and insufficient clinical validation. Future research priorities include rigorous clinical trials and performance testing to establish non-inferiority compared with conventional prostheses and to support broader clinical integration.

Keywords: amputation; amputees; limb prosthetics; rapid prototyping; upper limb prosthetics.

Publication types

Review