Thermodynamic Limits to Molecular Doping in Conjugated Polymers: A Perspective on Phase Behavior and Miscibility

Somayeh Kashani; Justin Neu; Sung-Joo Kwon; Runqio Song; Zixuan Chen; Tajah Trapier; Paschalis Gkoupidenis; David Ginger; Wei You; Jasper J Michels; Harald Ade

doi:10.1002/adma.202522989

Thermodynamic Limits to Molecular Doping in Conjugated Polymers: A Perspective on Phase Behavior and Miscibility

Adv Mater. 2026 May 20:e22989. doi: 10.1002/adma.202522989. Online ahead of print.

Authors

Somayeh Kashani^{1

2}, Justin Neu³, Sung-Joo Kwon⁴, Runqio Song¹, Zixuan Chen³, Tajah Trapier¹, Paschalis Gkoupidenis^{1

2}, David Ginger⁴, Wei You³, Jasper J Michels⁵, Harald Ade¹

Affiliations

¹ Department of Physics and Organic and Carbon Electronics Laboratories (ORaCEL), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
² Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Organic and Carbon Electronics Laboratories (ORaCEL), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
³ Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina At Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
⁴ Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA.
⁵ Department of Molecular Electronics, Max-Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Mainz, Germany.

PMID: 42159213
DOI: 10.1002/adma.202522989

Abstract

Molecular doping of conjugated polymers (CPs) is essential for advancing organic electronics yet achieving high and stable doping efficiency remains a significant challenge. While charge transfer, diffusion, and electronic and materials structure have been widely studied, the thermodynamic phase behavior that can fundamentally constrain doping efficiency and inform morphological stability, has received comparatively limited attention. This perspective provides an overview of the relevant thermodynamic aspects of doped CPs, including phase diagrams, miscibility limits, co-crystal formation, interaction parameters, and structural transitions, and argues for an increased focus on thermodynamic concepts. We focus on the solid, rather than the solvated state. To illustrate how thermodynamics governs CP-dopant miscibility, we draw on theoretical insights into the effective interaction parameter (χ_eff) for crystalline polymer systems and illustrate our arguments with experimental case studies from twelve model systems differing in sidechain chemistry, backbone structure, and energy levels. Grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering is used to probe structural transitions, while time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry is used to estimate the binodal. We discuss evidence for upper and, for the first time, for lower critical solution temperature behaviors. The resultant thermodynamic perspective helps rationalize divergent behaviors across dopant-polymer combinations and provides guidance toward a generalized thermodynamic understanding that enables the co-design of CP-dopant systems with improved doping efficiency and stability. We advocate that experimental determination of the dopant polymer-phase diagram beyond the current, mostly heuristic approach and advanced modeling would greatly advance understanding and progress. We hope that this perspective will spark development of a comprehensive framework.

Keywords: conjugated polymers; doping; miscibility; phase diagram; thermodynamic.

Abstract

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