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Increased risk of venous thrombo-embolism with the use of Tamoxifen is well known from published literature. This risk further increases in patients undergoing surgical procedures of high risk involving prolonged period of immobilization, therefore withholding Tamoxifen treatment in the immediate peri-operative period should be considered as a risk reducing measure. ...

AREAS COVERED: This article reviews the current conventional therapies and discusses novel therapeutic agents, some of which are available to clinicians while others are currently being investigated in the preclinical setting. ...

The oncologist is therefore challenged to precisely assess the risk of recurrence according to currently available predictive and prognostic factors in order to offer the most appropriate therapeutic option to the individual patient, considering also potential side effects, quality of life, pregnancy planning and patients' preferences. ...Finally, the therapeutic choice should take into account drug availability and pharmacoeconomic issues, which unfortunately may prevent, in many low-income countries, the provision of such effective treatments....