Monoterpenes such as limonene and perillyl alcohol (POH) are promising natural compounds with pro-oxidant properties partly due to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced cytotoxicity, and antioxidant activity owing to their activity as free radical scavengers, inhibition of coenzyme Q synthesis, activation of antioxidant-responsive elements (inducing detoxification enzymes) and induction of apoptosis. Activation of ER-stress responses generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are highly reactive free radicals mainly produced during mitochondrial electron transfer for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. When cells are subjected to oxidative stress conditions, there is an accumulation of ROS that can lead to irreversible cell injury caused primarily by lipid peroxidation, protein aggregation and/or DNA damage. Malignant tumors, such as glioblastoma multiforme, display elevated rates of oxygen consumption, necrosis and abnormal structural microvasculature. Alterations in the tumor microenvironment are tightly linked to tumor progression and occur as a result of activation of complex signaling networks involving inter-clonal cooperation, cell-matrix interactions and an ongoing inflammatory response leading to genetic and epigenetic alterations. This review will focus on the pro- and anti-oxidant activities of POH, which are greatly dependent on the respective ROS levels within the tumor microenvironment and involve the ER stress response system. As well, some critical aspects of tumor-associated metabolic changes and the consequences of endogenous ROS production for tumor progression will be discussed.
Keywords: Hypoxia; Perillyl alcohol; Reactive oxygen species; Tumor microenvironment.